Abstract:

     This article contains the thoughts and a brief description of the historical de velop-

ment of plant classification in ancient China.

     In a primitive society our ancestors distinguished the edible and poisonous plants

by taste and personal experiences.  Such comparitive observations and assessments con-

stituded the emergence of the thoughts of plant classification.

      1.  In the Spring and Autumn Period (c. 700-500 B. C.) Shih Mo (史墨) sug-

gested that,   “Living organisms contain paired factors”. At the end of West Chou

Dynasty (c. 400 B. C.), Shih Pai (史伯) maitained, “heterogeneity leads to prosperity,

homogeneity leads to extinction” (国语.郑语, Kuo-yu-Cheng-yu).   This  ancient

idea corresponds with the principles of modern genetics.

     2.   The Logics of Classification of Later Mohists: In the text of Ching Shang

(经上, Upper Conon) of Mo Tzu (c. 400-300 B. C.), three types of names were

distinguished: .'Ta-ming” (达名 General names), “Lei-ming” (类名 Class-names) and

“Si-ming” (私名 Private names).  These types of names may include different scope

of things, but they all reflect reality objectively.  The Later Mohists have touched the

Rule of Dichotomy or Excluded Middle (排中律) in reasoning.  In the same article

it was written that, “Truth is Law.  Whatever is true fits with the Law.  Whichever

matches with truth is correct.  Whichever does not agree with truth is incorrect”.

It continued, “If one is false, the other may be correct.  This is meant that even one

is incorrect, it can not be assumed that the other is also incorrect”. The above idea

approaches the philosophy and logic method of Plato and his disciple, Aristotle.  In

addition, the Later Mohists emphasized that in analytical studies of natural objects,

“One must take them by kinds and group them by nature”.  This is to say that we

must make comparative analysis of natural objects of the same ranks.  Otherwise, the

conclusion is useless.  For example, in modern taxonomic research, if some workers

compare variety with species, their conclusion will not be trustworthy.

      3.  A series of valuable ideas about classification and nomenclature was brought

forth by Hsun Tzu (荀子, c. 278-238 B. C.) in Cheng Ming (正名, Rectification of

Names).  This is briefly reviewed in the following:

      (1)  Importance of Nomemclature and Classification: Ne maintained, “Whenever

the actual differences of two things are known, two names must be given.  They

must not be cofused  ......  when the ranks are not clarified, the similarities and dif-

ferences not distinguished, the thought becomes the basis of confusion and the action

is the source of trouble”.

      (2)  Relationship between Names and Facts: Hsun Tzu expressed, “A name must

refer to  the  actual  thing”. He emphasized, “The position is determined after the

acquisition of evidences”.

      (3)  Regarding the Principle of Classification: Hsun Tzu asserted, “Whatever

are similar, put them in the same category.  Whatever are different, group them se-

parately.  When the species of a monotypic genus expresses fully the generic charac-

teristics, leave it alone.  When one species cannot fully explain the characters of that

genus, place several related species together.  When it is discovered that the charac-

teristics of a monotypic genus and that of a larger genus are not in conflict, then

they must be combined”.

     Regarding the hierarchy in classification he continued,”  ......  In dealing with

the multitude articles of nature, we may treat them inclusively as a whole and call

them organisms.  So, organism is a generalized term.  Within the organismic world we

can begin with the simple lowermost ranks and group  them upwards into  higher

ones, stop only when there are no more categories.  We may also treat the organisms

separately by groups.  For example, we may deal only with birds and animals.  Even

birds and animals are inclusive terms. We can take these and separate them.  We may

divide them again and again, until there is no more division to be made”.

     From the above quotation, we understand  that  ancient  Chinese  philosophical

thoughts about nature were established two millennia ago.  The basic principles of

nomenclature and classification was the recognition of similarities for higher heirarchy

and differences for lower ranks.

      (4)  Formation of Name: The thought of “codification of traditional usages” (约

定俗成) was evident in the formation of name.  Hsun tzu maintained, “Names are

not innate”.  “Names may not fit always”, “When a name is supported by tradi-

tional usage and defined by regulations, it is the proper one”.

      (5)  Dialectics in classification was evident: Hsun Tzu maitained, “Things may

appear alike, yet belonging to different categories, or they may appear differently,

but belonging to the same group.  This phenomenon must be recognized.  When the

appearances of two articles are alike and their natures are different, though grouped

together, they represent two entities......  When  there  are  phenotypic  variations

without genetic differences, the individuals belong to one species”.

      (6)  Understanding of Variation: Hsun  Tzu  explained  variation  by  saying,

“Phenetic difference without genetic change is called variation”.

     From the above quotations, we realize that over two thousand years ago, the

ancient philosophers and naturalists of China already have established the principles

and deviced the method of nomenclature and classification.  Their thoughts laid the

foundation of plant classification in ancient China.  On account of TIME, they de-

veloped the theory without any voluminous practical production.  Neverthless, these

thoughts exerted definite influence in various kinds of work related to botanical clas-

sification, especially in the Pen Ts'ao Kang Mu  (本草纲目) of Li Shih-chen (李时珍).